John Rawls (1921−2002)

John Rawls (1921-2002), formerly a distinguished US political philosophy professor at Harvard University, is generally regarded as the leading proponent of modern liberalism in the late 20th century.

John Rawls: background

His most important work, A Theory of Justice (1971), had a significant impact on political philosophy in the post-war period and shaped the outlook of modern liberals and social democrats. Rawls's ideas were influenced by his childhood experiences in racially segregated Baltimore, his military service in the Pacific during the Second World War, and the socio-political events of the 1950s and 1960s in the USA, including McCarthyism, the civil rights movement, the threat of nuclear war, student protests, feminism, and the Vietnam War. He rejected utilitarianism, arguing that it failed to recognize the diverse motivations and interests of individuals, leading to the neglect of certain groups. Instead, Rawls proposed an updated version of social contract theory to establish what he called a ‘realistic utopia’ and asserted that a just society should persuade rather than compel individuals to abide by its institutions. He believed that such a society would uphold basic freedoms, promote equality of opportunity regardless of social background, and ensure that social and economic inequalities primarily benefit those who are most disadvantaged. In recognition of his contributions to political philosophy in defence of liberal democracy, Rawls was awarded the National Humanities Medal in 1999. His other notable works include Political Liberalism (1993), The Law of Peoples (1999), and Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (2001).

Rawls’s key ideas

Rawls’s approach to modern liberalism emphasizes two important concepts (1) the theory of justice – society must be just and guarantee that each person has a life worth living (2) the veil of ignorance – a hypothetical scenario where individuals agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own place in society.

1. The theory of justice

For Rawls, society should be founded on a theory of justice known as 'justice as fairness'. This theory is based on two fundamental principles of justice - liberty and difference - aimed at promoting a broader concept of foundational equality. Firstly, Rawls argued that every individual should have an equal right to the maximum possible liberty without infringing the liberties of others. He stated that ‘each person has an equal claim to a fully adequate scheme of equal basic rights and liberties, which is compatible with the same scheme for all.’ These rights and liberties include freedom of expression, association, conscience, movement, physical and psychological protection, due legal process, the rule of law, and equal political liberties such as the right to vote. Secondly, Rawls endorsed the difference principle, which maintains that ‘social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage.’ He believed that it is essential to regulate these inequalities to ensure that the least well-off individuals benefit as much as possible and to diminish the ‘threat advantages’ of social and economic privilege. Rawls proposed that an enabling state should function as a redistribution mechanism through progressive taxation, extensive public spending, and welfare measures to address inequality and uphold 'justice as fairness'. He also championed meaningful equality of opportunity to prevent discrimination (in, for example, education and employment) based on social class, ethnicity, gender, beliefs, or financial status. Nevertheless, Rawls supported arrangements that result in inequality, such as the market for goods, occupations and services, as long as they contribute to overall economic growth and ultimately benefit everyone by boosting the collective wealth of society. In his view, liberal democracies are most capable of enacting these changes because the government and social institutions (such as healthcare, education, taxation and electoral systems) within these democratic frameworks can oversee the capitalist economy to create a fair and equitable society. Furthermore, Rawls contended that the principle of liberty should be prioritized over the principle of difference, as he believed that freedom is too valuable to compromise for the sake of material improvements.

2. The veil of ignorance

In order to illustrate that a society founded on the principles of 'justice as fairness' aligns more closely with liberal ideals rather than socialist ones, Rawls employed a famous thought experiment. In this hypothetical scenario, known as the ‘original position’, a group of individuals is required to create a completely new society, which they consider to be superior to the current one they live in. A crucial aspect of this exercise is determining how to distribute wealth, power, and resources within this improved society. Throughout this experiment, the participants must make decisions regarding the new social structure while operating under a 'veil of ignorance', which means that they are unaware of their own ethnicity, sexual orientation, class background, age, or financial status in the new society. Rawls argued that, under these conditions, individuals will demonstrate their rationality and empathy by designing a fairer society where equal rights and freedoms are upheld, and the most disadvantaged members receive better treatment than they presently do. The decisions made by these individuals are influenced by their rational fear of potentially being at the bottom of the new social hierarchy. Rawls also asserted that by opting to reduce inequalities through an enabling state, these individuals are reinforcing the liberal principle of government by consent. However, he maintained that while most individuals would strive to improve the circumstances of the least fortunate, they would also desire a society that allows for significant inequalities of outcome to accommodate individual freedom and the pursuit of self-fulfillment. Therefore, Rawls's stance, which advocated for state intervention to address the challenges faced by the marginalized, did not call for an automatic closing of the wealth gap between the rich and poor. Consequently, in this regard, his argument cannot be viewed as socialist.

Impact of Rawls’s ideas

Rawls's A Theory of Justice is widely regarded as the most influential western work of political theory to have been published since 1945. It has played a significant role in revitalizing political philosophy as an academic discipline and reaffirming liberalism's importance within this area of study. The impact of Rawls's ideas has extended beyond academia, influencing the policy-making of liberal and social democratic politicians seeking to balance individualism with social justice and redistribution. Rawls's work has also sparked debates on restructuring welfare systems in the US and other countries. Having said this, the influence of his arguments on wider politics has been limited, partly because Rawls did not want to assume the role of a public intellectual and partly because neoliberal ideas were gaining greater traction in the US and elsewhere in the 1970s. Moreover, his concept of a just society has faced criticism from both the left and right. Marxists like Gerald Cohen have argued that Rawls's vision of an enabling state is incompatible with liberal individualism and the inequalities of capitalist system. On the other hand, libertarians such as Robert Nozick have rejected Rawls's concept of 'justice as fairness’, asserting that successful individuals in a capitalist economy should not be deprived of their rewards by state intervention.